Special Education
Posted by
admin 19 June, 2009
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Educational services and programs for students with abilities ranging from giftedness to MENTAL RETARDATION, and including various physical, emotional, or learning differences.
Although the history of special education can be traced at least as far back as Plato’s recommendation that children with extraordinary intellectual ability should be provided special leadership training, in more modern times special education was practiced in the 16th century when Pedro Ponce de León taught deaf Spanish children to speak, read, and write. In the 18th century Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard developed special education techniques with Victor, the so-called Wild Boy of Aveyron. During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, special education procedures for teaching some school skills to pupils with sensory handicaps were supported by Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet. For example, individuals with profound hearing loss were taught meanings for printed words by repeated simultaneous presentations of a printed word and a picture of what the word represented.
About the same time, attempts to educate individuals with mental retardation or with emotional or behavioral disorders increased in number and success, as exemplified in the work of the American educator Samuel Gridley Howe. Successful attempts to educate the deaf and blind led to scientific methods to teach the mentally retarded in Europe. For example, Maria Montessori, a pediatrician and innovative educator, used multisensory methods to teach mentally retarded and culturally deprived children in Rome in the late 19th century.
In the 20th century, the enactment and implementation of compulsory education laws led to an increasing need for special education services. In the latter half of the 20th century, great gains have been made in special education. In most developed countries, addressing the educational needs of the disabled has become universal. However, it was not until the mid-1970s, with the passage of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (PL 94-142), that the education of disabled children carried the force of law in the United States. This revolutionary legislation, guaranteeing a free and appropriate education for all children, paved the way for a rapid expansion of the field of special education that continues to this day.
Public Law 94-142, renamed Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990, requires students with disabilities to be placed in the least restrictive environment (LRE) available in order to avoid segregating students with disabilities.
Schools that comply with the laws receive more money from the federal government to offset part of the costs of providing special education services. The federal government also requires that schools report the number of special education students they serve. During the 1989-90 school year, more than four-and-a-half million children received such services. About 85 percent of these children were between the ages of six and 17.
Special equipment is used extensively with students who have problems with vision or hearing. Such equipment might include computers to convert printed materials into synthetic speech. Special desks, chairs, writing devices, and school buses may help students with physical handicaps. Special ramps and wide doors, swimming pools, and schoolrooms specially equipped with hearing aid transmitting equipment are all part of special education.
Special services for exceptional individuals include speech training, physical and occupational therapies, counseling, and vocational training for students with mental retardation. The most common elements of special education are the specialized instructional techniques, such as:
• sign language
• programmed instruction procedures designed to present information in small steps
• behavior modification techniques such as token economies
While most special education takes place in regular public schools, some classes are provided in special public or private day or residential schools, public or private hospitals, and, in some cases, the homes of individuals whose disabilities prevent them from attending school. Most individuals with disabilities do not require an entire program of services apart from conventional instruction but rather only a modification of features.
When children are considered able to benefit from participation with other children, they are usually taught in the normal school program. This process, known as mainstreaming, was believed to be consistent with the legal mandate for education in the least-restrictive environment. More than two-thirds of students with disabilities receive most of their education in regular education classes.
If a child’s handicap is not severe, a special education teacher works with the regular classroom teacher to develop skills. In other cases, an assistant teacher may be able to care for a student’s specific needs. For individuals with more serious problems, special education may be provided in a separate classroom for part of the school day; students with severe learning and behavioral problems may remain in a separate special education room all day. The ratio of students to teachers is usually much lower in a special education classroom than in an ordinary classroom.
With the development of assistive technologies, the field of special education continues to evolve, although its goal remains the same as it was from the beginning—to educate and integrate individuals with disabilities into society.
Although the history of special education can be traced at least as far back as Plato’s recommendation that children with extraordinary intellectual ability should be provided special leadership training, in more modern times special education was practiced in the 16th century when Pedro Ponce de León taught deaf Spanish children to speak, read, and write. In the 18th century Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard developed special education techniques with Victor, the so-called Wild Boy of Aveyron. During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, special education procedures for teaching some school skills to pupils with sensory handicaps were supported by Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet. For example, individuals with profound hearing loss were taught meanings for printed words by repeated simultaneous presentations of a printed word and a picture of what the word represented.
About the same time, attempts to educate individuals with mental retardation or with emotional or behavioral disorders increased in number and success, as exemplified in the work of the American educator Samuel Gridley Howe. Successful attempts to educate the deaf and blind led to scientific methods to teach the mentally retarded in Europe. For example, Maria Montessori, a pediatrician and innovative educator, used multisensory methods to teach mentally retarded and culturally deprived children in Rome in the late 19th century.
In the 20th century, the enactment and implementation of compulsory education laws led to an increasing need for special education services. In the latter half of the 20th century, great gains have been made in special education. In most developed countries, addressing the educational needs of the disabled has become universal. However, it was not until the mid-1970s, with the passage of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (PL 94-142), that the education of disabled children carried the force of law in the United States. This revolutionary legislation, guaranteeing a free and appropriate education for all children, paved the way for a rapid expansion of the field of special education that continues to this day.
Public Law 94-142, renamed Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990, requires students with disabilities to be placed in the least restrictive environment (LRE) available in order to avoid segregating students with disabilities.
Schools that comply with the laws receive more money from the federal government to offset part of the costs of providing special education services. The federal government also requires that schools report the number of special education students they serve. During the 1989-90 school year, more than four-and-a-half million children received such services. About 85 percent of these children were between the ages of six and 17.
Special equipment is used extensively with students who have problems with vision or hearing. Such equipment might include computers to convert printed materials into synthetic speech. Special desks, chairs, writing devices, and school buses may help students with physical handicaps. Special ramps and wide doors, swimming pools, and schoolrooms specially equipped with hearing aid transmitting equipment are all part of special education.
Special services for exceptional individuals include speech training, physical and occupational therapies, counseling, and vocational training for students with mental retardation. The most common elements of special education are the specialized instructional techniques, such as:
• sign language
• programmed instruction procedures designed to present information in small steps
• behavior modification techniques such as token economies
While most special education takes place in regular public schools, some classes are provided in special public or private day or residential schools, public or private hospitals, and, in some cases, the homes of individuals whose disabilities prevent them from attending school. Most individuals with disabilities do not require an entire program of services apart from conventional instruction but rather only a modification of features.
When children are considered able to benefit from participation with other children, they are usually taught in the normal school program. This process, known as mainstreaming, was believed to be consistent with the legal mandate for education in the least-restrictive environment. More than two-thirds of students with disabilities receive most of their education in regular education classes.
If a child’s handicap is not severe, a special education teacher works with the regular classroom teacher to develop skills. In other cases, an assistant teacher may be able to care for a student’s specific needs. For individuals with more serious problems, special education may be provided in a separate classroom for part of the school day; students with severe learning and behavioral problems may remain in a separate special education room all day. The ratio of students to teachers is usually much lower in a special education classroom than in an ordinary classroom.
With the development of assistive technologies, the field of special education continues to evolve, although its goal remains the same as it was from the beginning—to educate and integrate individuals with disabilities into society.
Categories :
Health and Wellness
Spatial-Material Organizational Disorder
Posted by
admin 15 June, 2009
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A problem with organizing materials so that the child constantly struggles for survival within an ordered environment. A child with this problem has a hard time organizing information on paper. Margins are missing, spacings between words and letters are incorrect, centering is difficult, and the overall appearance of the work is messy. Teachers often have trouble reading the child’s work. A child with this problem often forgets assignments or books needed to complete assignments. Assignments themselves may be incomplete, or the child cannot find completed assignments.
In addition, a child with this problem is often disorganized and has problems following routines or completing tasks. Desk and home environment are usually quite messy and disorganized, although the child may appear to have his own system of organization in his own space.
In addition, a child with this problem is often disorganized and has problems following routines or completing tasks. Desk and home environment are usually quite messy and disorganized, although the child may appear to have his own system of organization in his own space.
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Health and Wellness
Southern Tick-Associated Rash Illness (STARI)
Posted by
admin 14 June, 2009
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An infection causing a rash similar to that produced by LYME DISEASE affecting residents in southeastern and south central United States. Southern tick-associated rash illness (STARI) is associated with the bite of the lone star tick (Amblyomma americanum). These ticks are found through the southeast and south central states. Even though spirochetes have been seen in A. americanum ticks, attempts to culture them in the laboratory have consistently failed. However, a spirochete has been detected in A. americanum by DNA analysis and was given the name Borrelia lonestari.
Symptoms
People who live or travel in the south and who develop a red, expanding rash with central clearing after the bite of a lone star tick should see a doctor. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is interested in obtaining samples from such patients under an Institutional Review Board-approved investigational protocol. In 2001 one patient with evidence of B. lonestari infection was reported in the medical literature. This patient had been exposed to ticks in Maryland and North Carolina and had developed a typical Lyme disease rash. DNA analysis indicated the presence of B. lonestari in a skin biopsy taken at the leading edge of the rash and in the tick removed by the doctor. Testing for Lyme disease was negative. The patient was treated with an oral antibiotic and recovered.
Lone star ticks can be found from central Texas and Oklahoma eastward across the southern states and along the Atlantic coast as far north as Maine. Although several studies have demonstrated that between 1 percent and 3 percent of these ticks are infected with a spirochete, a thorough assessment of risk of infection has not been conducted.
Treatment/Prevention
As with Lyme disease, prompt treatment with antibiotics cures the infection. Prevention measures similar to those for Lyme disease will reduce the exposure to infected ticks.
Symptoms
People who live or travel in the south and who develop a red, expanding rash with central clearing after the bite of a lone star tick should see a doctor. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is interested in obtaining samples from such patients under an Institutional Review Board-approved investigational protocol. In 2001 one patient with evidence of B. lonestari infection was reported in the medical literature. This patient had been exposed to ticks in Maryland and North Carolina and had developed a typical Lyme disease rash. DNA analysis indicated the presence of B. lonestari in a skin biopsy taken at the leading edge of the rash and in the tick removed by the doctor. Testing for Lyme disease was negative. The patient was treated with an oral antibiotic and recovered.
Lone star ticks can be found from central Texas and Oklahoma eastward across the southern states and along the Atlantic coast as far north as Maine. Although several studies have demonstrated that between 1 percent and 3 percent of these ticks are infected with a spirochete, a thorough assessment of risk of infection has not been conducted.
Treatment/Prevention
As with Lyme disease, prompt treatment with antibiotics cures the infection. Prevention measures similar to those for Lyme disease will reduce the exposure to infected ticks.
Categories :
Health and Wellness
Sore Throat
Posted by
admin 13 June, 2009
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A scratchy, painful throat known medically as PHARYNGITIS, that often accompanies a cold or other infection caused by a variety of organisms. Although a sore throat in itself is not serious, it may indicate a bacterial infection such as STREP THROAT.
Symptoms
Strep throat may cause swollen/tender lymph nodes in the neck, fever for more than two days, and pain with swallowing. Any of the following signs indicate the onset of EPIGLOTTITIS, which is much more serious than a sore throat and requires immediate medical attention:
• sudden severe pain in throat
• refusal to swallow
• uncontrolled drooling
• breathing problems
• harsh sound when inhaling
Symptoms
Strep throat may cause swollen/tender lymph nodes in the neck, fever for more than two days, and pain with swallowing. Any of the following signs indicate the onset of EPIGLOTTITIS, which is much more serious than a sore throat and requires immediate medical attention:
• sudden severe pain in throat
• refusal to swallow
• uncontrolled drooling
• breathing problems
• harsh sound when inhaling
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Health and Wellness
Solar Warning Index
Posted by
admin 12 June, 2009
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A daily warning index forecasting the ultraviolet light radiation exposure for major cities in the United States designed to help people avoid skin cancer. The index is issued daily to forecast the amount of dangerous ultraviolet light that will reach the Earth’s surface at noon the next day. The scale is one to 10 in most areas, rising to one to 15 in regions that receive stronger solar radiation. The higher the number, the greater the danger.
The goal of the warnings, which are issued by the National Weather Service, is to remind people of the danger to their skin so they will use sunscreens and sunglasses and reduce exposure to themselves and their children. Damage from sun exposure accumulates over time, and much of the injury occurs during childhood. The general categories of hazard are:
Minimal (Index of 0–2)
Fair-skinned people may burn in 30 minutes; those with darker skins may be safe up to two hours.
Low (3–4)
Fair-skinned people may burn in 15 to 20 minutes; others may be safe from 75 to 90 minutes.
Moderate (5–6)
Fair people may burn in 10 to 12 minutes; others may be safe for 50 to 60 minutes.
High (7–9)
Fair people may burn in 7 to 81/2 minutes; others may be safe for 33 to 40 minutes.
Very High (10 and Up)
Fair people may burn in 4 to 6 minutes; others may be safe for 20 to 30 minutes.
The goal of the warnings, which are issued by the National Weather Service, is to remind people of the danger to their skin so they will use sunscreens and sunglasses and reduce exposure to themselves and their children. Damage from sun exposure accumulates over time, and much of the injury occurs during childhood. The general categories of hazard are:
Minimal (Index of 0–2)
Fair-skinned people may burn in 30 minutes; those with darker skins may be safe up to two hours.
Low (3–4)
Fair-skinned people may burn in 15 to 20 minutes; others may be safe from 75 to 90 minutes.
Moderate (5–6)
Fair people may burn in 10 to 12 minutes; others may be safe for 50 to 60 minutes.
High (7–9)
Fair people may burn in 7 to 81/2 minutes; others may be safe for 33 to 40 minutes.
Very High (10 and Up)
Fair people may burn in 4 to 6 minutes; others may be safe for 20 to 30 minutes.
Categories :
Health and Wellness
Special Education
Posted by
admin 11 June, 2009
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Educational services and programs for students with abilities ranging from giftedness to MENTAL RETARDATION, and including various physical, emotional, or learning differences.
Although the history of special education can be traced at least as far back as Plato’s recommendation that children with extraordinary intellectual ability should be provided special leadership training, in more modern times special education was practiced in the 16th century when Pedro Ponce de León taught deaf Spanish children to speak, read, and write. In the 18th century Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard developed special education techniques with Victor, the so-called Wild Boy of Aveyron. During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, special education procedures for teaching some school skills to pupils with sensory handicaps were supported by Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet. For example, individuals with profound hearing loss were taught meanings for printed words by repeated simultaneous presentations of a printed word and a picture of what the word represented.
About the same time, attempts to educate individuals with mental retardation or with emotional or behavioral disorders increased in number and success, as exemplified in the work of the American educator Samuel Gridley Howe. Successful attempts to educate the deaf and blind led to scientific methods to teach the mentally retarded in Europe. For example, Maria Montessori, a pediatrician and innovative educator, used multisensory methods to teach mentally retarded and culturally deprived children in Rome in the late 19th century.
In the 20th century, the enactment and implementation of compulsory education laws led to an increasing need for special education services. In the latter half of the 20th century, great gains have been made in special education. In most developed countries, addressing the educational needs of the disabled has become universal. However, it was not until the mid-1970s, with the passage of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (PL 94-142), that the education of disabled children carried the force of law in the United States. This revolutionary legislation, guaranteeing a free and appropriate education for all children, paved the way for a rapid expansion of the field of special education that continues to this day.
Public Law 94-142, renamed Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990, requires students with disabilities to be placed in the least restrictive environment (LRE) available in order to avoid segregating students with disabilities.
Schools that comply with the laws receive more money from the federal government to offset part of the costs of providing special education services. The federal government also requires that schools report the number of special education students they serve. During the 1989-90 school year, more than four-and-a-half million children received such services. About 85 percent of these children were between the ages of six and 17.
Special equipment is used extensively with students who have problems with vision or hearing. Such equipment might include computers to convert printed materials into synthetic speech. Special desks, chairs, writing devices, and school buses may help students with physical handicaps. Special ramps and wide doors, swimming pools, and schoolrooms specially equipped with hearing aid transmitting equipment are all part of special education.
Special services for exceptional individuals include speech training, physical and occupational therapies, counseling, and vocational training for students with mental retardation. The most common elements of special education are the specialized instructional techniques, such as:
• sign language
• programmed instruction procedures designed to present information in small steps
• behavior modification techniques such as token economies
While most special education takes place in regular public schools, some classes are provided in special public or private day or residential schools, public or private hospitals, and, in some cases, the homes of individuals whose disabilities prevent them from attending school. Most individuals with disabilities do not require an entire program of services apart from conventional instruction but rather only a modification of features.
When children are considered able to benefit from participation with other children, they are usually taught in the normal school program. This process, known as mainstreaming, was believed to be consistent with the legal mandate for education in the least-restrictive environment. More than two-thirds of students with disabilities receive most of their education in regular education classes.
If a child’s handicap is not severe, a special education teacher works with the regular classroom teacher to develop skills. In other cases, an assistant teacher may be able to care for a student’s specific needs. For individuals with more serious problems, special education may be provided in a separate classroom for part of the school day; students with severe learning and behavioral problems may remain in a separate special education room all day. The ratio of students to teachers is usually much lower in a special education classroom than in an ordinary classroom.
With the development of assistive technologies, the field of special education continues to evolve, although its goal remains the same as it was from the beginning—to educate and integrate individuals with disabilities into society.
Although the history of special education can be traced at least as far back as Plato’s recommendation that children with extraordinary intellectual ability should be provided special leadership training, in more modern times special education was practiced in the 16th century when Pedro Ponce de León taught deaf Spanish children to speak, read, and write. In the 18th century Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard developed special education techniques with Victor, the so-called Wild Boy of Aveyron. During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, special education procedures for teaching some school skills to pupils with sensory handicaps were supported by Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet. For example, individuals with profound hearing loss were taught meanings for printed words by repeated simultaneous presentations of a printed word and a picture of what the word represented.
About the same time, attempts to educate individuals with mental retardation or with emotional or behavioral disorders increased in number and success, as exemplified in the work of the American educator Samuel Gridley Howe. Successful attempts to educate the deaf and blind led to scientific methods to teach the mentally retarded in Europe. For example, Maria Montessori, a pediatrician and innovative educator, used multisensory methods to teach mentally retarded and culturally deprived children in Rome in the late 19th century.
In the 20th century, the enactment and implementation of compulsory education laws led to an increasing need for special education services. In the latter half of the 20th century, great gains have been made in special education. In most developed countries, addressing the educational needs of the disabled has become universal. However, it was not until the mid-1970s, with the passage of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (PL 94-142), that the education of disabled children carried the force of law in the United States. This revolutionary legislation, guaranteeing a free and appropriate education for all children, paved the way for a rapid expansion of the field of special education that continues to this day.
Public Law 94-142, renamed Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990, requires students with disabilities to be placed in the least restrictive environment (LRE) available in order to avoid segregating students with disabilities.
Schools that comply with the laws receive more money from the federal government to offset part of the costs of providing special education services. The federal government also requires that schools report the number of special education students they serve. During the 1989-90 school year, more than four-and-a-half million children received such services. About 85 percent of these children were between the ages of six and 17.
Special equipment is used extensively with students who have problems with vision or hearing. Such equipment might include computers to convert printed materials into synthetic speech. Special desks, chairs, writing devices, and school buses may help students with physical handicaps. Special ramps and wide doors, swimming pools, and schoolrooms specially equipped with hearing aid transmitting equipment are all part of special education.
Special services for exceptional individuals include speech training, physical and occupational therapies, counseling, and vocational training for students with mental retardation. The most common elements of special education are the specialized instructional techniques, such as:
• sign language
• programmed instruction procedures designed to present information in small steps
• behavior modification techniques such as token economies
While most special education takes place in regular public schools, some classes are provided in special public or private day or residential schools, public or private hospitals, and, in some cases, the homes of individuals whose disabilities prevent them from attending school. Most individuals with disabilities do not require an entire program of services apart from conventional instruction but rather only a modification of features.
When children are considered able to benefit from participation with other children, they are usually taught in the normal school program. This process, known as mainstreaming, was believed to be consistent with the legal mandate for education in the least-restrictive environment. More than two-thirds of students with disabilities receive most of their education in regular education classes.
If a child’s handicap is not severe, a special education teacher works with the regular classroom teacher to develop skills. In other cases, an assistant teacher may be able to care for a student’s specific needs. For individuals with more serious problems, special education may be provided in a separate classroom for part of the school day; students with severe learning and behavioral problems may remain in a separate special education room all day. The ratio of students to teachers is usually much lower in a special education classroom than in an ordinary classroom.
With the development of assistive technologies, the field of special education continues to evolve, although its goal remains the same as it was from the beginning—to educate and integrate individuals with disabilities into society.
Categories :
Health and Wellness
Social Phobia
Posted by
admin 11 June, 2009
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An ANXIETY DISORDER characterized by a constant fear of social or performance situations such as speaking in class or eating in public. This fear is often accompanied by physical symptoms such as sweating, blushing, heart palpitations, shortness of breath, or muscle tenseness. Social phobia usually emerges in the mid-teens and typically does not affect young children.
Teens with this disorder typically respond to these feelings by avoiding the feared situation. For example, they may stay home from school or avoid parties. Young people with social phobia are often overly sensitive to criticism, have trouble being assertive, and suffer from low self-esteem. Moreover, social phobia can be limited to specific situations, so the adolescent may fear dating and recreational events but be confident in academic and work situations.
Teens with this disorder typically respond to these feelings by avoiding the feared situation. For example, they may stay home from school or avoid parties. Young people with social phobia are often overly sensitive to criticism, have trouble being assertive, and suffer from low self-esteem. Moreover, social phobia can be limited to specific situations, so the adolescent may fear dating and recreational events but be confident in academic and work situations.
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Health and Wellness
Smoking and Children
Posted by
admin 11 June, 2009
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Every day, almost 5,000 children and teens try smoking for the first time. Cigarettes and smokeless tobacco kill hundreds of thousands of Americans every year. The nicotine and the other poisonous chemicals in tobacco cause heart problems and cancer. Some of these illnesses take years to develop, but others can show up right away; smokers are much more likely to get infections such as colds and pneumonia.
The problem is particularly serious in adolescence, since teenagers can become addicted to cigarettes in as little as a few weeks by taking just a few draws on a cigarette every other day, according to research from the University of Massachusetts. Research also shows that smoking is particularly dangerous for teens because their bodies are still developing and the 4,000 chemicals (including 200 known poisons) in cigarette smoke can adversely affect this process.
Most people start using tobacco before they finish high school. This means that if a teen stays smoke-free in school, he or she will probably never smoke.
The problem is particularly serious in adolescence, since teenagers can become addicted to cigarettes in as little as a few weeks by taking just a few draws on a cigarette every other day, according to research from the University of Massachusetts. Research also shows that smoking is particularly dangerous for teens because their bodies are still developing and the 4,000 chemicals (including 200 known poisons) in cigarette smoke can adversely affect this process.
Most people start using tobacco before they finish high school. This means that if a teen stays smoke-free in school, he or she will probably never smoke.
Categories :
Health and Wellness
Smallpox
Posted by
admin 11 June, 2009
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A highly infectious, serious viral disease causing a skin rash and flu-like symptoms that has been totally eradicated throughout the world since 1980. The last naturally acquired case of smallpox occurred in Somalia in 1977, and the last cases of smallpox (from lab exposure) occurred in 1978. In May 1980 the World Health Assembly certified that the world was free of naturally occurring smallpox. However, the threat of smallpox has reemerged as a potential terroristic threat since the attack on the World Trade Center in New York City on September 11, 2001.
In the United States vaccination programs and quarantine regulations meant that by the 1960s the risk for importing smallpox had been reduced. As a result, recommendations for routine smallpox vaccination were rescinded in 1971. In 1976 the recommendation for routine smallpox vaccination of health-care workers was also discontinued. In 1982 the only active licensed producer of vaccinia vaccine in the United States discontinued production for general use, and in 1983 distribution to the civilian population was discontinued. Since January 1982 smallpox vaccination has not been required for international travelers, and International Certificates of Vaccination forms no longer include a space to record smallpox vaccination.
In the United States routine vaccination against smallpox ended in 1972. The level of immunity among vaccinated Americans is uncertain, so these people are assumed to be susceptible. Most estimates suggest immunity from the vaccination lasts only three to five years, which means that nearly the entire U.S. population has only partial immunity at best. Approximately half of the U.S. population has never been vaccinated.
In 1992 the government formed volunteer Smallpox Response Teams who can provide critical services to citizens in the event of a smallpox attack. To ensure that the teams can mobilize immediately in an emergency, health-care workers and other critical personnel were asked to volunteer to receive the smallpox vaccine. Although the United States currently has enough vaccine to vaccinate every single person in the country in an emergency, the federal government does not recommend vaccination for the general public because of both the possibility of side effects and the low level of threat. However, the Department of Defense vaccinates certain military and civilian personnel deployed in high threat areas, along with some personnel assigned to certain overseas embassies.
In addition, the government is preparing to make unlicensed vaccine available to those adult members of the general public without medical contraindications who insist on being vaccinated. Immunity can be boosted effectively with a single revaccination, and prior infection with the disease grants lifelong immunity.
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) maintains an emergency supply of vaccine that can be released if necessary, since post-exposure vaccination is also effective in preventing the disease. In 2000 the CDC awarded a contract to a vaccine manufacturer to produce additional doses of smallpox vaccine in case of a bioterrorism attack. In the event of an outbreak, the CDC has clear guidelines to provide vaccine swiftly to people exposed to this disease. The vaccine is securely stored for use in the case of an outbreak.
Symptoms
The incubation period before symptoms appear ranges between seven and 17 days after exposure. Initial symptoms include high fever, fatigue, and head and back aches. A characteristic rash of flat red lesions, most prominent on the face, arms, and legs, follows in two to three days. Lesions become filled with pus after a few days, and then begin to crust early in the second week. Scabs develop, separate, and then fall off after about three to four weeks. Most patients with smallpox recover, but death may occur in up to 30 percent of cases.
In most cases, smallpox is spread from one person to another by infected saliva droplets that expose a susceptible person having face-to-face contact with the ill person. People with smallpox are most infectious during the first week of illness, because that is when the largest amount of virus is present in saliva. However, some risk of transmission lasts until all scabs have fallen off. Contaminated clothing or bed linen could also spread the virus. Special precautions need to be taken to ensure that all bedding and clothing of patients are cleaned appropriately with bleach and hot water. Disinfectants such as bleach and quaternary ammonia can be used for cleaning contaminated surfaces.
Vaccine
Smallpox vaccine does not contain smallpox virus but another live virus called vaccinia virus, which is related to smallpox. Vaccination provides immunity against infection from smallpox virus. If the vaccine is given within four days after exposure to smallpox, it can lessen the severity of illness or even prevent it. In addition to the stock of smallpox vaccine in the United States, an additional 50 million to 100 million doses are estimated to exist worldwide, and the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that countries with stocks of smallpox vaccine maintain these stocks.
Side Effects
Side effects from successful vaccination include tenderness, redness, swelling, and a lesion at the vaccination site. In addition, the vaccination may cause fever for a few days and the lymph nodes in the vaccinated arm may become enlarged and tender. These symptoms are more common in those receiving their first dose of vaccine than in those being revaccinated. The overall risks of serious complications of smallpox vaccination are low and occur more frequently in those receiving their first dose of vaccine and among young children.
The most frequent serious complications are encephalitis, progressive destruction of skin and other tissues at the vaccination site, and severe and destructive infection of skin affected already by eczema or other chronic skin disorder. Encephalitis occurs in about one in 300,000 doses in children.
Who Should Not Be Vaccinated
The vaccine is not recommended for those who have abnormalities of the immune system because the complication of progressive destruction of skin and other tissues at the vaccination site has occurred only among recipients in this group. The vaccine is also not recommended for recipients who have eczema or other chronic skin disorders because the complication of severe and destructive infection of skin has occurred only among these patients.
Treatment
There is no proven treatment for smallpox, but researchers are studying new antiviral drugs. Patients with smallpox are given supportive treatment including intravenous fluids, medicine to control fever or pain, and antibiotics for secondary bacterial infections.
In the United States vaccination programs and quarantine regulations meant that by the 1960s the risk for importing smallpox had been reduced. As a result, recommendations for routine smallpox vaccination were rescinded in 1971. In 1976 the recommendation for routine smallpox vaccination of health-care workers was also discontinued. In 1982 the only active licensed producer of vaccinia vaccine in the United States discontinued production for general use, and in 1983 distribution to the civilian population was discontinued. Since January 1982 smallpox vaccination has not been required for international travelers, and International Certificates of Vaccination forms no longer include a space to record smallpox vaccination.
In the United States routine vaccination against smallpox ended in 1972. The level of immunity among vaccinated Americans is uncertain, so these people are assumed to be susceptible. Most estimates suggest immunity from the vaccination lasts only three to five years, which means that nearly the entire U.S. population has only partial immunity at best. Approximately half of the U.S. population has never been vaccinated.
In 1992 the government formed volunteer Smallpox Response Teams who can provide critical services to citizens in the event of a smallpox attack. To ensure that the teams can mobilize immediately in an emergency, health-care workers and other critical personnel were asked to volunteer to receive the smallpox vaccine. Although the United States currently has enough vaccine to vaccinate every single person in the country in an emergency, the federal government does not recommend vaccination for the general public because of both the possibility of side effects and the low level of threat. However, the Department of Defense vaccinates certain military and civilian personnel deployed in high threat areas, along with some personnel assigned to certain overseas embassies.
In addition, the government is preparing to make unlicensed vaccine available to those adult members of the general public without medical contraindications who insist on being vaccinated. Immunity can be boosted effectively with a single revaccination, and prior infection with the disease grants lifelong immunity.
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) maintains an emergency supply of vaccine that can be released if necessary, since post-exposure vaccination is also effective in preventing the disease. In 2000 the CDC awarded a contract to a vaccine manufacturer to produce additional doses of smallpox vaccine in case of a bioterrorism attack. In the event of an outbreak, the CDC has clear guidelines to provide vaccine swiftly to people exposed to this disease. The vaccine is securely stored for use in the case of an outbreak.
Symptoms
The incubation period before symptoms appear ranges between seven and 17 days after exposure. Initial symptoms include high fever, fatigue, and head and back aches. A characteristic rash of flat red lesions, most prominent on the face, arms, and legs, follows in two to three days. Lesions become filled with pus after a few days, and then begin to crust early in the second week. Scabs develop, separate, and then fall off after about three to four weeks. Most patients with smallpox recover, but death may occur in up to 30 percent of cases.
In most cases, smallpox is spread from one person to another by infected saliva droplets that expose a susceptible person having face-to-face contact with the ill person. People with smallpox are most infectious during the first week of illness, because that is when the largest amount of virus is present in saliva. However, some risk of transmission lasts until all scabs have fallen off. Contaminated clothing or bed linen could also spread the virus. Special precautions need to be taken to ensure that all bedding and clothing of patients are cleaned appropriately with bleach and hot water. Disinfectants such as bleach and quaternary ammonia can be used for cleaning contaminated surfaces.
Vaccine
Smallpox vaccine does not contain smallpox virus but another live virus called vaccinia virus, which is related to smallpox. Vaccination provides immunity against infection from smallpox virus. If the vaccine is given within four days after exposure to smallpox, it can lessen the severity of illness or even prevent it. In addition to the stock of smallpox vaccine in the United States, an additional 50 million to 100 million doses are estimated to exist worldwide, and the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that countries with stocks of smallpox vaccine maintain these stocks.
Side Effects
Side effects from successful vaccination include tenderness, redness, swelling, and a lesion at the vaccination site. In addition, the vaccination may cause fever for a few days and the lymph nodes in the vaccinated arm may become enlarged and tender. These symptoms are more common in those receiving their first dose of vaccine than in those being revaccinated. The overall risks of serious complications of smallpox vaccination are low and occur more frequently in those receiving their first dose of vaccine and among young children.
The most frequent serious complications are encephalitis, progressive destruction of skin and other tissues at the vaccination site, and severe and destructive infection of skin affected already by eczema or other chronic skin disorder. Encephalitis occurs in about one in 300,000 doses in children.
Who Should Not Be Vaccinated
The vaccine is not recommended for those who have abnormalities of the immune system because the complication of progressive destruction of skin and other tissues at the vaccination site has occurred only among recipients in this group. The vaccine is also not recommended for recipients who have eczema or other chronic skin disorders because the complication of severe and destructive infection of skin has occurred only among these patients.
Treatment
There is no proven treatment for smallpox, but researchers are studying new antiviral drugs. Patients with smallpox are given supportive treatment including intravenous fluids, medicine to control fever or pain, and antibiotics for secondary bacterial infections.
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Skin Infections
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admin 10 June, 2009
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Skin infections can range from a local superficial problem, such as IMPETIGO, to a widespread and more serious infection. Examples of bacterial skin infections include ECTHYMA, folliculitis, BOILS, CARBUNCLES, SCARLET FEVER, CELLULITIS, and so on. Viral infections with skin symptoms include HERPES, CHICKEN POX, SHINGLES, WARTS, MEASLES, GERMAN MEASLES, FIFTH DISEASE, and AIDS.
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